Creation of a Virtual Experiment through a
Computerized Case study as a tool towards the creation of Organizational
Learning and Assimilation of a Systemic Dynamic way of thinking.
by:
Eli Schragenhaim, Moshe Yerushalmy
Systemic
thinking is one of the largest challenges that any manager faces.
The ability to think systematically means to foresee the generality
of the influences of one action in one part of the organization,
on the other parts of the organization, thus evaluating the
contribution of the action to the success of the organization.
Edward Deming claimed that the main problems of organizations
lay in the interfaces. It does not mean only the relationships
between managers of different functions or levels in the organization,
but also the management of cross organizational processes.
Any
point in the interface between functions in the organization
through which a process passes is a source of misunderstandings,
actions which do not contribute any additional value and friction.
A point of failure especially widespread in medium and large
organizations, is a localised view of local managers, a point
of view which tests each decision according to its influence
on the sub-organization, and overlooks, whether intentionally
or through a lack of knowledge, the total-organizational influence
of the same decision.
Why
is there difficulty in systemic thinking? On the one hand there
is a connection between systemic thinking, based on generalization
and lack of concentration on details, and individual concrete
thinking. Meaning: people have different abilities to develop
a systemic thinking. On the other hand there is a possibility
to help and train managers in such a way of thinking. The meth
suggested here is to perform a wide simulation of situations
of managerial decision making, which influence the whole system.
The
task is not easy at all, of course, One known possibility is
to create a static case study which speaks about a concrete
situation in the organization, and try to activate managers
around this case.
The
result of such an activation is that although they experience
the multifaceted case study and improve their strategic thinking,
most of these cases concentrate on one specific subject, which
is only a small part of the organizational activity. i.e., the
simulation of a case study of this kind lacks the experience
of simultaneously coping with a variety of subjects, an important
experience from the point of view of high level systemic thinking.
Moreover, a static case study cannot point clearly to actual
results of the decisions taken and the actions performed. Consequently,
it may happen that differences of opinion among managers are
not only not resolved, but become legitimate, inferring that
there is more than one point of view to the subject dealt with.
The problem of unsolved differences is that at the practical
level no policy about what should be done crystallizes- a fact
which seems to us essentially contradictory to the wish of systemic
thinking which brings improvement in the functioning of the
organization. In order to ensure an activation which will reach
a sound decision, it is advisable to create, even in a static
case study, a "school solution" to compare with the
solutions of the participants. There are, of course, several
possible solutions that will benefit the organization, if only
a way to choose among them could be found.
A
static case study has many disadvantages. Beyond focusing on
a specific subject, which creates an oversimplification of reality
(which is, of course, comprised of several intertwined subjects),
there is also a lack of possibility to advance along the time
line from which many limitations in the interactive thinking
arise. Any claim within the case study, that if certain decision
is taken there will be certain implications, has only partial
validity, as it cannot be checked and verified. Moreover, any
decision which is taken, influences the whole system. This means
that a change takes place within the system, and there is now
a new situation which may require new thinking. In a static
case study those new decisions cannot be examined in the new
reality. The dynamic element, which has a far reaching influence
on the integrative thinking, does not reflect in static cases.
Let
us demonstrate some of the possibilities (both abilities and
limitations of a static case study) in creating an experimental
infrastructure for systemic thinking. We have chosen a case
study with a negative connotation in order to emphasize the
need for training in integrative thinking. Let us assume a case
according to which the company has to decrease its manpower
by 10%, is brought in front of a group of managers. It is undoubtedly
a difficult case, but by no means an impossible one in the life
of an organization. How will the managers deal with the task
in front of them? Every manager is of course interested that
his own workers would be exempt of the dismissal. If the group
of managers is expected to manage as a team, they will have
to reach an agreement. Will the discussion be fruitless or will
it bring to the surface systemic questions which will lead to
the conclusion that there should be reductions in certain places,
while leaving others as they are? This is the first test for
integrative thinking. Let's assume the group decides on the
easy (and most popular) way out: each manager will dismiss 10%
of his staff. Will this end the team discussion and will every
manager have to decide on his own which workers to dismiss?.
If this is what happens we have clear proof of very weak systemic
thinking here. The situation calls for thinking over several
subjects. The first subject that comes to mind for an all-systemic
examination is the manpower policy, meaning deciding on the
all-systemic criteria to choose in a situation like this.
This
will be - in our opinion - the main subject of a systemic discussion
in this case study. Actually, the case study and the problem
with the decision making arouse several important additional
subjects. For example: due to the reduction in the number of
employees, will the company continue delivering the same variety
of services or products to its customers? If the conclusion
is positive, it would have an immediate influence on the choosing
of the manpower to be dismissed. The central processes in the
company would have to be inspected too, as pinpointing non essential
tasks, as compared to essential ones, brings up a better characterization
of what may be given up in a time of hardship. All those subjects
are interwoven and the systemic thinking has to pass from one
subject to another, and back again when different alternatives
are brought up. In a whole integrative thinking the option of
preventing reduction in manpower, and the subsequent damage
the organization could suffer from such a move, should be discussed
too. Of course, the actual problem which caused this extreme
solution should be dealt with.
How
will we know whether a good decision has been made in a static
case study? The instructor's experience is the only answer to
that, as the case study does not really take place, and we really
feel the need for a verdict of reality to our decision. Moreover,
after the reduction, the organization will be in a different
situation. What would the next subjects be to focus the attention
of management? A static case study cannot deal with it. This
case study ends with the decisions of management and their discussion
with the instructor.
The
technological development of the computer enables both similar
and different ways of training in systemic thinking, ways which
carry results much stronger than those of static cases. First,
there is an actual opportunity of advancing in time with the
case study. Thus the case becomes a dynamic case study - the
decision becomes an action, the action alters the balance of
forces in the organization. Now all we have to do is ask whether
those are the results we intended getting. Beyond the specific
results, the team of managers find themselves in a new reality
which they have to analyze and make decisions about the subjects
they have to focus on. In the managerial thinking we should
distinguish between two kinds of decisions: a decision about
what must be decided on, and decisions which place themselves
on the manager's desk.
When
the manager gets an order from his superiors to reduce manpower
by 10% it is an open decision which is placed on his desk. When
the company finds itself in serious economic problems, the manager
himself has to take the initiative and look for ways of minimizing
costs or for additional financing. This is a decision which
the manager must initiate. Localizing the problem and deciding
on the alternatives for inspection are a first rate thinking
challenge, and it is included in the dynamic-systemic thinking.
Such a way of thinking is difficult to develop and train through
static cases. True, it is possible to create a case study whose
purpose is identifying an important problem which requires decision
making, but the moment it is clear that there is a problem of
decision making hiding somewhere in the case study, the participants,
who are aware of the rules of the "Make believe" cases,
will look for the spot of the decision- making. In reality,
the localizing of a subject for discussion, its analysis and
the decision- making is infinitely more complex, and of course
it is not clear that the new situation created requires a new
decision, which anyhow is not on the agenda. For this reason
it is very difficult to build the managers perpetual commitment
to identifying problems which require difficult decisions in
the near future. A dynamic case study, which advances with time,
is capable of "make believe" situations, where the
manager's ability to identify decision- making situations, as
the case study itself does not demand inspecting the situation
and making decisions, in a loud and clear voice.
Let
us inspect a simple example. What may cause the top management
of a company to inspect penetration into a new market segment?
Do managers think like that all the time? The idea may have
surfaced as a result of the localization of a specific chance
in the market - for example, the suggestion of a marketing chain
(" why don't you enter the market of x or y....- demand
grows and your technology seems appropriate?"). In a case
like this the decision is placed on the table thanks to an outside
initiative. In another case a marketing man came across a product
and said to himself "why don't we...". Here, the initiative
is an inside initiative, but the decision for discussion was
brought up by chance. The decision in question is not "should
we enter a new market segment" but "should we enter
a specific market segment?". This is a great limitation,
one of concentrating only on those decisions which place themselves
openly on the desk. How can management get to checking a decision
of this kind without an external or occasional factor which
will make it relevant? By a systematic and continuous analysis
of the state of the organization, and what can be improved.
An
analysis which will point out the limitations of the company's
present market may open the option of penetrating additional
market segments for discussion. From this point on the discussion
should include an analysis of the different alternatives, but
the main point is: a decision was made to inspect penetration
into additional market segments. The diagnosis of the need to
make a decision is a characteristic of managerial thinking,
which can be taught and practised.
A
dynamic case study which is based on simulation which develops
with time may create decision -making situations, without stating
clearly that this is happening. Meaning, in order to decide
in time that maybe a decision must be made, there is a perpetual
need to follow the organization's situation and to diagnose
the need for a decision. A computerized case study enables,
for instance, a group of managers to manage an industrial plant
for a year. Of course, the computerized plant is infinitely
simpler than any real one. We will discuss the limitations of
a computerized case study later on. At the same point of time
when the managers receive the command, the plant works according
to the decisions and lines designed by the prior management.
Meaning: there is the possibility of ordering the computer to
run ahead in time. At this point new orders will enter the system,
and those will immediately be translated into production orders,
the stock will diminish and according to the purchase policy
new orders for more raw material will be effectuated from the
suppliers. The financial actions will also be made automatically
according to the actual principles (customers' credit and suppliers'
credit.). Apparently, there is no need for managers. Only, fulfillment
of organized processes and defined rules for every-day decision
making do not assure that those decisions are in the company's
favor. In fact, if we let a computerized case study advance
without any decision or managerial interference, the result
will not suffice us.
The
challenge of the group of managers is to localize the weak points
of the organization, to alter only what needs changing in order
to improve the system, and to do it with the right timing. In
order to manage the task the team must identify the important
information, which has been hiding among huge quantities of
data, which will lead to the conclusion that a decision should
be made on the subject. For example, if it is crystal clear
that the marketing of certain product grows by a considerable
amount, up to the point of exhausting the production capabilities,
a decision about what to do must be taken. One of the alternatives
could be raising the prices, thus, diminishing the demand and
remaining profitable. Another decision could be increasing the
prices of other products, in order to leave room for this product.
The
process which leads to decision making at this level of importance
comprises two stages: The first stage is the identification
of the problematic situation. This identification leads to the
awareness that there is a need to make a decision which will
help with the solution of the problem. If this identification
is made on time, it means that the actual problem has not yet
placed itself on the discussion table, but has been found through
the early identification. The following stage is the analysis
of each alternative up to the time of decision. The computerized
case study very much stresses the aspect of deciding about what
to decide. The second stage, of analyzing the alternatives is
of course strongly felt in the case study. The need to follow
the implication itself and inspect the actions performed actually
cause the expected change in the functioning of the whole system
to arise from the case study as well.
The
live case study, which develops with time, creates dynamic situations,
thus creating a framework for the studying of the dynamic significance
of each decision. One of the meanings of dynamism is that the
effect of each action or event becomes clear only after some
time, Jay Forster created the term system dynamics, where he
claimed that there is a misunderstanding about the systemic
influences of the period of time which passes between an action
and the phenomenon caused by it. A well known example for the
dynamic effect is the balance of the hot water in the tap. When
the water is cold, we quickly turn the tap in the hot direction,
but it takes only a few seconds to realize we have overdone
it, and now we have to turn the tap in the direction of the
cold and so on. In his book "The Fifth Discipline",
Peter Senge raises the issue of dynamic thinking and its relation
to integrative thinking, and demonstrates our lack of intuition
regarding the dimensions of its influence (The Beer Game).
Dynamic
thinking holds great significance in the life of organizations.
When it seems there is a basis to the diagnosis that the marketing
of certain product is increasing - the one who should react
first is the purchasing manager. His reaction must be careful
and controlled. As we may see from the integrative case study
which we call "The Beer Game".
The
computerized case study enables us to clarify the dynamic meanings
in management in a direct way. Changes in the market are introduced
into the case study, and the team of managers must identify
the tendency, and understand the dynamic significance which
it produces. The actions performed in order to develop the market
are also exposed to the dynamic influence of the gap of time
between the action and its results. Let us assume that in order
to increase the sales the decision was to reduce the price by
5%. Will this reduction cause a meaningful increase in the demand?
When will we be sure that there is a meaningful increase in
the demand? Time passes until the level of influence of a change
in the price becomes clear and steady. The shift in demand may
cause a change in the level of load on the machines. This change
also does not happen immediately either, but becomes apparent
as time passes.
An
additional factor stressed by the computerized case study is
coping with uncertainty. The dynamic end is related to understanding
the uncertainty which exists in the surroundings. Assuming we
cannot be sure exactly how the market demands will behave when
the price goes down by 5 %, the decision is even made under
uncertain conditions. Nevertheless what can we say about the
decision? Does the risk to the organization look reasonable?
Has it been taken into account?. What is the significance of
an uncertain decision when thinking about the follow up? Training
of managers to make decisions under conditions of uncertainty
may contribute to a better and more organized process of decision
making.
We
have mentioned several central subjects in managerial thinking
that a wide scoped simulation case study is able to create;
teaching and training environment. The next question we have
to deal with is What is the ability to learn from experience?
Meaning, does the fact that such a group of managers face of
such a case and get the results, ensure learning?
This
question is much more general than relating to the computerized
case study. What is our ability to learn from experience in
general, and from a one time event in particular?
It
is obvious that experience brings about some sort of learning.
How much experience do we need to get to the second level of
learning, meaning- learning that creates a new understanding
of the surroundings, and is capable of creating a systemic change
as a result?
Our
accumulated experience (and this also means learning from experience)
points to three conclusions:
It is difficult learning from experience, especially from a
one time event. We often learn the wrong lesson from the event.
We can learn how to improve learning from experience.
When the ability to learn better from experience is created,
there is a possibility of learning much more quickly.
The
instructor in a computerized case study has a very significant
role in guiding the learning. His main role is not only to teach
the material, i.e. showing an organized way of how one should
act, but also to use the case study, and many times the surprise
from the results of the case study, to advantage, to ask difficult
questions thus arousing the thinking of the management team
who run the case study.
The
surprise factor is of a huge importance in creating learning.
Were the case end with the results the participant had foreseen,
the most we would have achieved is the reinforcement of existing
thinking patterns. Only the computerized case study, with its
uncertainty, with the need of integrative thinking and with
the need to take into account dynamic factors, clearly creates
situations which call for the change of existing thinking patterns,
thus creating a new opportunity for a concentrated learning
from experience.
Since
the case study is based on computerized simulation, it enables
the participants to repeat it over and over. This is a big advantage
to the learning through experience: after the first experiment
some lessons are learned. Are those lessons correct? The application
of the conclusions on the case study and the repetition enable
us to check the conclusions made. If the outcome is that the
application did not help, we have here a surprise which calls
for additional learning. If the lessons learned helped in this
case, it is advisable to think of applying them experimentally
in another computerized case study, in order to learn the limitations
of those lessons.
What
are the limitations of a computerized case study? Two categories
of limitations come to mind. One is based on the limitations
of the computerized system to create a real scenario, similar
to the surroundings of the participants, in order to reflect
the generality of the factors taking part in the dynamic systemic
thinking. The second category is the actual learning from specific
events - meaning a limitation on the ability to generalize what
was learned through experience with totally different systems
and situations.
The
first category of limitations of the computerized system is
obvious. It is impossible to create a case study that would
contain all the complexities of real life. It is difficult to
introduce the soft, human side of management: understanding
of people, the means to motivate people and the channels to
transmit messages and values. It is of course, possible to integrate
these factors partially through questions and possible answers.
Another partial integration of the soft factors may also be
achieved through the use of teams facing the case study, and
to include the group dynamics taking place in the team as an
integral part of the case study. In such a procedure the case
study will also arouse the question of levels of openness during
the group discussion, how much each of the members contributed
to the coping with the case study, and whether any of the members
of the team took the leadership.
The
utmost reality is too complex to be described in detail in a
computerized case study. What is possible is to introduce to
the case study enough parts of it, in order to create a high
level of complexity, so as to create a valuable learning. This
level of complexity is a central link in the building of a computerized
case study. If it is too high, the trials to learn in the given
time might fail, due to a lack of ability to update all the
thinking patterns which need to be updated. If the level of
complexity is low, the learning from experience will be very
little.
The
second category, the limitations of the generalization from
a computerized case study, is important to mention in order
to bring the expectations down into a proportion. Case studies
help to nurture dynamic systemic thinking. The computerized
case study makes practice and exercising possible in such a
generalization, but it is limited in its ability to check the
generalization of what was studied in other systems.
The
enormous circulation of information systems like ERP, Enterprise
Resource Planning, creates an urgent need for assimilation of
dynamic managerial thinking in many organizations. The ability
of the computerized case study to create a learning and environment
for practice for such a way of thinking can be of great assistance
to such a process. Nevertheless, we must remember that learning
does not always mean assimilation, since the manager's ability
to think integratively, does not assure his willingness to do
so. And this is another subject for systemic managerial thinking
- how to create learning which also leads to the assimilation
of managerial dynamic systemic thinking in uncertain surrounding.
Under
the pictures:
Eli Schragenhaim, joint manager in MBE Simulations Ltd. A well
known international expert on the theory of constraints and
the development of computerized instructional devices for managers.
Together with Dr. Avner Pasal he developed a unique methodology
for the assimilation of learning from experience in organizations.
Moshe
Yerushalmy, , joint manager in MBE Simulations ltd. . A well
known international expert on the application of advanced data
systems, and its connections with the requirements of the dynamic
- integrative management.
The
significance of the ability to think systemically is to foresee
the generality of influences of one action in one part of the
organization, on other parts of the organization, thus evaluating
the contribution of the action to save the company.
The
technological development of computers have enabled both similar
and different ways of training in systemic thinking which produces
much stronger results than the static case study.
In
managerial thinking we must distinguish between two kinds of
decisions: decisions of what should be decided, and decisions
that place themselves on the manager's desk.